It's all color coded. The preserving of them wearies Him not; For those who retire and rest after the day's fast there are, in some areas, men called musahhirs who, in the silent, predawn darkness beat muted drums and call the faithful to awake and eat before the long day's fast begins again. In 1917, however, Lord Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary, issued the Baltour Declaration, which promised British support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine providing that "nothing shall he done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities" - a reference to the Arabs, who then were 92 percent of the population. During what is known as the Golden Age of Islam, which lasted roughly between the mid-eighth century until the 13th century, the Muslim world was the center of intellectual activity, with Baghdad serving as the capital for philosophers, mathematicians and scientists. In 1824 Mahmud II finally broke the power of the Janissaries, brought in German advisers to restructure the army, and launched a modernization program. As the early scholars in the Islamic world agreed with Aristotle that mathematics was the basis of all science, the scholars of the House of Wisdom first focused on mathematics. watch The Abridged Chronological History of Islam http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byq9akpc3Tg, 1995 - 2023 IslamiCity. At a later period the Janissaries became so powerful that they made and unmade sultans at their will, and membership in the corps was a sure road to advancement. In the first half of the tenth century the 'Abbasid vizier Ibn Muqlah completed the development of kufic, established some of the rules of shape and proportion that have been followed by calligraphers since his time, and was first to develop what became the traditional classification of Arabic writing into the "six styles" of cursive script: naskhi (from which most present day printing types are derived), thuluth (a more cursive outgrowth of naskhi), rayhani (a more ornate version of thuluth), muhaqqaq (a bold script with sweeping diagonal flourishes), tawqi' (a somewhat compressed variety of thuluth in which all the letters are sometimes joined to each other), and ruq'ah (the style commonly used today for ordinary handwriting in most of the Arab world). Calligraphy flourished during the Umayyad era in Damascus. Alerted by a chain of signal fires stretching from Iraq to Egypt, the Mamluks were able to marshal their forces in time to meet, and crush, the Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut near Nazareth in Palestine. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. In the history of the Middle Ages, this was far more important than ephemeral conquests. The first important step in the establishment of this empire was taken in 1326 when the Ottoman leader Orhan captured the town of Bursa, south of the Sea of Marmara, and made it his capital. As the Arab chronicles put it, Harun al-Rashid ruled when the world was young, a felicitous description of what in later times has come to be called the Golden Age of Islam. The orphan was consigned to the care of his grandfather, the head of the clan of Hashim. The famous theologian al-Ghazali whose greatest work, the Revival of the Sciences of Religion, was a triumph of Sunni theology taught for a time at the nizamiyah schools at Baghdad and at Nishapur. As the chief source of Islamic doctrine and practice, the Quran is the main foundation of the shari'ah, the sacred law of Islam, which covers all aspects of the public and private, social and economic, religious and political lives of all Muslims. This, together with a series of brilliant sultans - culminating in the redoubtable Suleiman the Magnificent - established the foundations of an empire that at its height was comparable to that of the Romans. Islam has helped to shape the culture from the language, to customs, to business, to institution building, to the construction of political arrangements. I never saw such a great article like this. All Rights Reserved, IslamiCity is a registered trademark of HADI, a nonprofit 501 (c)(3) organization. The intensified spreading of Islam due to the arrival of Aabs and Somalis, and intermarriages with the local people resulted into the Swahili people and Swahili culture. The Ghaznavids patronized al-Biruni, one of the greatest and most original scholars of medival Islam, and the Hamdanids, a purely Arab dynasty, patronized such poets as al-Mutanabbi and philosophers like the great al-Farabi, whose work kept the flame of Arab culture alive in a difficult period. More than 60 percent of the Muslim population lives not in the Middle East, but in Asia. In effect, however, it expired with the Mongols and the capture of Baghdad. There were specific agencies charged with keeping pay records; others concerned themselves with the collection of taxes. Then, in 1497, five years after Ferdinand and Isabella ended Islamic rule in Spain, Vasco da Gama led a fleet of four Portuguese ships around Africa and in 1498 found a new sea route to India from Europe. So, in proportion did sporadic strife between Arabs and Jews. The Black Death (1347 - 1351 CE) was the first and greatest of the many plague outbreaks of the second plague pandemic in the Middle East (1347 CE to 1877 CE). The process of European penetration was gradual and complex; but there were, nevertheless, clearly identifiable turning points. The first pillar, the profession of faith, is the repetition of the statement, "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God" - in Arabic the euphonious "La ilaha illa Allah; Muhammadun rasul Allah." Palestine, they pointed out, had been part of the Islamic world almost continually for twelve centuries; from 636 to the First World War. This conquest was made much easier by the weakness of the Sassanid Empire, which was wounded by internal conflicts and a lengthy war with the Byzantine Empire. We feature each theme with a beautiful image. Muhammad's father, 'Abd Allah ibn'Abd al-Muttalib, died before the boy was born; his mother, Aminah, died when he was six. The main body of the Shi'is, on the other hand, believes that the caliphate - which they call the imamate or "leadership" - is nonelective. Photo: Water courses and fountains make an oasis of the Alhambra palace built at Granada in the fourteenth century Here incredibly light and elegant elements of Islamic decoration find their highest realization. Your post is really great and I really appreciate your work. This section is more for the technologically minded. Turkish tribes, driven from their homeland in the steppes of Central Asia by the Mongols, had embraced Islam and settled in Anatolia on the battle lines of the Islamic world, where they formed the Ottoman confederation. 622-632 - Islamic Empire under Mohammad. During this period scribes began the modification of the original thick and heavy kufic script into the form employed today for decorative purposes, as well as developing a number of new scripts derived from the more cursive naskhi. The last great Umayyad caliph was Hisham, the fourth son of 'Abd al-Malik to succeed to the caliphate. To obtain scarce metals the 'Abbasids had to turn elsewhere. In relentless succession they had retaken Toledo, Cordoba, and Seville. It is difficult to determine where Islamic practice . Photo: At Hama in Syria, antique wooden wheels still lift the waters of the Orontes to gardens, baths, and cooling fountains. Advertisement. The most stable of the successor dynasties founded in the ninth and tenth centuries was that of the Fatimids, a branch of Shi'is. Based on one or the other of these schools, learned officials called qadis administer the law in shari'ah courts. In Iran, for example, there came into use a particularly graceful and delicate script called ta'liq, in which the horizontal strokes of the letters are elongated and which is often written at an angle across the page. Under a minor chieftain named Othman, groups of Turkish-speaking peoples in Anatolia were united in the Ottoman confederation which, by the second half of the fourteenth century, had conquered much of present-day Greece and Turkey and was threatening Constantinople. With the shift to Damascus much was changed. He wrote (originally cited in Robert Gottfried's Black Death):. But he also introduced much needed reforms. All this can be part of the 'umrah or "lesser pilgrimage," often a prelude to the hajj but not an integral part of it. And if it was a new and upstart faith, its administration by simple and honest men was preferable to the corruption and persecution that were the norm in more civilized empires George F. Nafziger, Mark W. Walton, Islam at War: A History, 2003. In this manner the Indians would render Roman CCC XX 111 as: 3 2 3. Only Granada survived. As an effect of the Crusades, the Muslim's distrust in the Europeans increased. At their peak they ruled North Africa, the Red Sea coast, Yemen, Palestine, and parts of Syria. Much of the 'Abbasid administration, for example, was left in the hands of well-educated Persian civil servants, many of whom came from families that had traditionally served the Sassanid kings. They recovered, however, and later, under the leadership of a new sultan, Murad II, besieged Constantinople for the second time. They also improved trade and agriculture, patronized the arts, made valuable contributions to science, and established Cordoba as the most sophisticated city in Europe. One day, as he sat in the cave, he heard a voice, later identified as that of the Angel Gabriel, which ordered him to: Recite: In the name of thy Lord who created, Created man from a clot of blood. Although the House of Wisdom originally concentrated on mathematics, it did not exclude other subjects. Even the various reform movements were balked, and with the invasion of Egypt in 1798 by France it became obvious that the once powerful empire was weakening. Resistance to European penetration took several forms. In Syria, for example, many Christians who had been involved in bitter theological disputes with Byzantine authorities- and persecuted for it- welcomed the coming of Islam as an end to tyranny. Tahir asserted his independence of the central government by omitting mention of the caliph's name in the mosque on Friday and by striking his own coins - acts which became the standard ways of expressing political independence. During a trip to Byzantium in search of manuscripts, Muhammad ibn Musa happened to meet Thabit ibn Qurrah, then a money changer but also a scholar in Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. The zakah prescribes payments of fixed proportions of a Muslim's possession for the welfare of the community in general and for its needy members in particular, whether Muslims or non-Muslims. This is exactly what happened. After their forays into France were blunted by Charles Martel, the Muslims in Spain had begun to focus their whole attention on what they called al-Andalus, southern Spain (Andalusia), and to build there a civilization far superior to anything Spain had ever known. Indeed, the Quran is the cornerstone on which the edifice of Islamic civilization has been built. Calligraphy - the art of "beautiful writing" -continues to be something that is not only highly prized as ornament and decoration but is immensely practical and useful as well. The result was the text that is accepted to this day throughout the Muslim world. Systematized in the second and third centuries of the Muslim era (the eighth and ninth centuries A.D.), the shari'ah later developed into four major schools of jurisprudence: the Hanafi School, founded by Abu Hanifah; the Maliki School, founded by Malik ibn Anas; the Shafi'i School, founded by Muhammad al-Shafi'i; and the Hanbali School founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal. The first four caliphs had been without exception Companions of the Prophet - pious, sincere men who had lived no differently from their neighbors and who preserved the simple habits of their ancestors despite the massive influx of wealth from the conquered territories. Photo: Purity of line characterizes the late twelfth century Kutubiyah Mosque of the Berbers in Marrakesh. It is useful to realize that the power of Islam was separate from much and more permanent than that of the armies with which it rode. The first verses were revealed to him in or about 610, and the last revelation dates from the last year of his life, 632. There were four persons obviously marked for leadership: Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, who had not only accompanied Muhammad to Medina ten years before, but had been appointed to take the place of the Prophet as leader of public prayer during Muhammad's last illness; 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, an able and trusted Companion of the Prophet; 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, a respected early convert; and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. And while Sunnis consider the caliph a guardian of the shari'ah, the religious law, the Shi'is see the imam as a trustee inheriting and interpreting the Prophet's spiritual knowledge. Another significant difference is that the Arabic script has been used much more extensively for decoration and as a means of artistic expression. In addition to the Quran the shari'ah has three sources: the sunnah, the practice of the Prophet; ijma', the consensus of opinion; and qiyas, reasoning by analogy. Although the Suez Canal, for example, has been of immense value to Egypt, the profits for nearly a century went to European shareholders in the company that managed the canal. Photo: The Hijaz Railway, completed by the Turks in 1908, linked Damascus with Medina, eight hundred miles to the south. Click on these beautiful images & start exploring the theme/value behind it. This is a great piece of knowledge I ever have seen Ma.Shaa.Allah. To obtain them, of course, the Muslims had to export too, often using the imports from one region as exports to another: pearls from the Gulf, livestock from the Arabian Peninsula (particularly Arabian horses and camels), and - one of the chief products - cloth. A series of events took place in the Middle Ages, which changed the future, which impacted generations to generations . The Mongol invasions, in fact, were a major cause of the subsequent decline that set in throughout the heartland of the Arab East. They were repulsed, but by 1444 they had advanced into Greece and Albania, leaving Constantinople isolated though unconquered. Islam has had an enormous impact on the culture of the Middle East since the time of the Prophet Muhammad. Muhammad so effectively built up a series of alliances among the tribes his early years with the Bedouins must have stood him in good stead here- that by 628 he and fifteen hundred followers were able to demand access to the Ka'bah during negotiations with the Meccans. Photo: The basmalah is here written in ornamental "floriated" kufic (above) and in naskhi (below). Geographical unity, however, was but one factor. But as more revelations enjoined him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, his following grew, at first among the poor and the slaves, but later also among the most prominent men of Mecca. He also brought the semi-autonomous rulers in various provinces under control, with the exception of the defiant and able Muhammad 'Ali in Egypt. The destruction by the Mongols of many of these achievements and of much of what the Muslims had accomplished by the end of the Golden Age was a tragic loss for the world as a whole. In 1187 Saladin counterattacked, eventually recapturing Jerusalem. The Fatimids won their first success in North Africa, where they established a rival caliphate at Raqqadah near Kairouan and, in 952, embarked on a period of expansion that within a few years took them to Egypt. The IslamiCity site may occasionally contain copyrighted material the use of which may not always have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. The introduction of numerous varieties of fruits and vegetables and other plants to the West via the Islamic empire was, however, largely the result of the vast expansion of trade during the Golden Age. The Turkish defeat in the First World War (in which the Ottoman Empire sided with Germany and the Central Powers) finally discredited the Young Turks, however, and paved the way for the success of a new nationalist movement under the leadership of an army officer named Mustafa Kemal, later known as Ataturk or "Father of the Turks." It is therefore understandable that many observers predict the rapid decay of Islamic influence in the Middle East. And what is after them, The criticisms that religious men in Medina and elsewhere had voiced of Umayyad policy - particularly the pursuit of worldly goals - were not lost on 'Umar who, reversing the policy of his predecessors, discontinued the levy of a poll tax on converts. The social and economic impact was, as in Europe, enormous.The Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (1332 - 1406) lived through the plague but lost his parents. In the thirteenth century still another threat to the Muslim world appeared in the land beyond the Oxus: the Mongols. After its development in Turkey, it spread to the Arab countries and is in use today for formal documents and also as architectural decoration. This custom, followed until recently by noble families of Mecca, Medina, Tayif, and other towns of the Hijaz, had important implications for Muhammad. At the start of the Islamic era two types of script seem to have been in use - both derived from different forms of the Nabataean, alphabet. Scholars, for example, in collecting and reexamining the hadith, or "traditions" - the sayings and actions of the Prophet - compiled immense biographical detail about the Prophet and other information, historic and linguistic, about the Prophet's era. For these necessities the 'Abbasid traders exchanged a wide variety of products: pearls, livestock, paper, sugar, and (a specialty of the Islamic world) luxurious cloth. The Arabs did not surrender easily; al-Andalus was their land too. Called the Five Pillars of Islam, they are: the profession of faith (shahadah), devotional worship or prayer (salah), the religious tax (zakah), fasting (sawm), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). Even earlier, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon had broken their ties with Britain and France. Realizing that the original message from God might be inadvertently distorted by textual variants, he appointed a committee to collect the canonical verses and destroy the variant recensions. In sum, modernization has not been entirely synonymous with Westernization. Orhan's successor, Murad I, who launched naval attacks upon the Aegean coasts of Europe, established himself on the European shores of the Bosporus, and crushed a Balkan coalition. Like all Islamic ceremonies, prayer is simple and personal, yet also communal, and the wording of the prayers, the ablutions which are required before prayers, the number of bows, and other parts of the ritual are set out in detail. Photo: Crowds at the small town of Mina cast pebbles at pillars that symbolize evil. Every action of the pious Muslim, therefore, is determined by the Quran, by precedents set by the Prophet, and by the practice of the early community of Islam as enshrined in the shari'ah. Photo: Hajjis spend one night camped at Muzdalifah between 'Arafat and Mina. As British efforts to control it generated widespread disapproval in the West and stimulated underground warfare by militant Zionist units against British forces, Britain eventually placed the problem in the hands of the United Nations, which in 1947 voted to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab States. Cordoba also had some 900 public baths, Europe's first street lights and, five miles outside the city, the caliphal residence, Madinat al-Zahra. By the twelfth century kufic was obsolete as a working script except for special uses and in northwest Africa, where it developed into the maghribi style of writing still used in the area today. The Constitution also defined the role of non-Muslims in the community. The Merciful, the Compassionate; The Islam to spread because of the forgiveness of Muhammad that he help the people. Civilization both in the East and the West was visited by a destructive plague which devastated nations and caused populations to vanish. After the Hijrah, Muhammad's exceptional qualities so impressed the Medinans that the rival tribes and their allies temporarily closed ranks as, on March 15, 624, Muhammad and his supporters moved against the pagans of Mecca. To make things more difficult, the Prophet had not left clear instructions as to who should lead the community after his death. Islamic leaders conquered Iran in 641 and in 642, Egypt was under Islamic control. 'Uthman was accused of favoritism to members of his family - the clan of Umayyah. The vizier was much more than an advisor; indeed, when the caliph was weak, a capable vizier became the most powerful man in the empire. In addition to having administrative abilities, he was an accomplished stylist whose book on statecraft, Siyasat-Namah, is a valuable source for the political thought of the time. The fifth pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage to Mecca - the hajj. It impeded private capital . Since all government business was by now transacted in Arabic, manuals of correct usage were written for the instruction of non-Arabic speakers who had found government employment. This is not really a type of script in itself but consists of a text in one of the standard scripts such as naskhi worked into a pattern in which one half is a mirror image of the other. Because the Quran rejected polytheism and emphasized man's moral responsibility, in powerful images, it presented a grave challenge to the worldly Meccans. It was the beginning of the period the Christians called the Reconquest, and it underlined a serious problem that marred this refined, graceful, and charming era: the inability of the numerous rulers of Islamic Spain to maintain their unity. It is largely owing to the existence of these traditional methods of recitation that the text of the Quran was preserved without error. But they were not always at the forefront and from the time of Mu'awiyah the caliph's role as "Defender of the Faith" increasingly required him to devote attention to the purely secular concerns which dominate so much of every nation's history. It is a simple statement, yet also profound, for in it a Muslim expresses his complete acceptance of, and total commitment to, the message of Islam. All of the letters are strictly speaking consonants, and unlike the Roman alphabet used for English and most European languages Arabic writing goes from right to left. This was a milestone in the history of the Muslims. Photo: Pilgrims at the climax of their hajj, "standing" before God at 'Arafat near the spot where Muhammad delivered his farewell sermon. It was not until the Umayyad Dynasty from 661 to 750that Islamic and Arabic culture began to truly spread. Fasting is also an exercise in self-control and self-denial whereby one learns to appreciate the pangs of hunger that the poor often feel. The process that resulted in Swahili culture took several centuries. Completed in 1908, it permitted thousands of Muslims to make the pilgrimage in relative comfort and safety. Islam is based on the belief in one God (Allah) and the teachings of Muhammad as recorded in the Quran, the holy book of Islam. During this period of his life Muhammad traveled widely. The Reach of Islam in East Africa. But if you see, a red iconlike this (), it means you are NOT logged in. The Qur'an has a number of passages that support military action against non-Muslims, for example: But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war) Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book Other passages confirmed the rightness of the ancient military tradition of looting from the defeated, and specified how the booty should be divided. Section 107, and such (and all) material on this site is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information for research and educational purposes. But returning to Granada, where cheering crowds hailed him as a victor, he disclosed his turmoil in that short, sad reply that he inscribed over and over on the walls of the Alhambra: "There is no victor but God. IslamiCity is making such material available in its effort to advance understanding of humanitarian, education, democracy, and social justice issues, etc. This outcome was among the earliest impacts of Christian crusades in the Middle East because Christians brutally massacred Muslims during the crusades. During this period the Mongols built mosques and schools and patronized scholarship of all sorts. Muhammad help to spread the religion of Islam. As societies become larger and more complex, its people become more likely to join monotheistic religions. The important office of wazir or vizier, chief counselor, may well have developed from Sassanid models. After the last circuit the pilgrims worship in the courtyard of the Mosque at the Place of Abraham, where the Patriarch himself offered prayer and, with Ishmael, stood while building the Ka'bah. Never, he wrote, was the annihilation of a people more complete. In the first place, the Muslim forces, outnumbered three to one, routed the Meccans. Read more. To his followers this simple man from Mecca was far more than a beloved friend, far more than a gifted administrator, far more than the revered leader who had forged a new state from clusters of warring tribes. The Muslim view, moreover, is that the Quran supersedes earlier revelations; it is regarded as their summation and completion. It is uncertain whether the Arabs or the Indians filled this need by inventing the zero, but in any case the problem was solved: now the new system could show neatly the difference between XXX II (32) and CCC II (302). After the first crusade, Western Europe sends 7 more in the next two centuries. Related Suggestions In an immediate sense, the Crusades had a terrible effect on some of the Muslim and Jewish inhabitants of the Middle East. In addition to education, contact with the West led to improvements in medical care and the introduction of Western techniques in agriculture, commerce, and industry. The Turks were part of a powerful military empire that unified the region under a Middle Eastern religion called Islam, . 'Abbasid writers also developed new a genres of literature such as adab, the embodiment of sensible counsel, sometimes in the form of animal fables; a typical example is Kalilah wa-Dimnah, translated by Ibn al-Muqaffa' from a Pahlavi version of an Indian work. There are many accounts from the period about the early Muslim conquests, but much of the material is unreliable and written to present things in a way that glorified the victors and their God As explanations for the great events of the seventh century these are at best partial. According to one account, he entered the city alone and clad in a simple cloak, astounding a populace accustomed to the sumptuous garb and court ceremonials of the Byzantines and Persians. Except such as He wills; and A.D. 70. if ( blp_cancelWowEffect || blp_isSafari ) { // blp_isSafari vars comes from the global js variable defined at blp-js-library.js And schools and patronized scholarship of all sorts recitation that the Quran is the to. Quran supersedes earlier revelations ; it is therefore understandable that many observers predict the how did islam impact the middle east decay of influence... Community after his Death Arabic script has been used much more extensively for decoration and as a of. Supersedes earlier revelations ; it is how did islam impact the middle east owing to the caliphate Hijaz,. Outnumbered three to one, routed the Meccans 2 3 Islam to spread because the. Bbc is not responsible for the content of external sites collection of taxes pillar Islam. 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( originally cited in Robert Gottfried & how did islam impact the middle east x27 ; s Black )... The time of the Prophet Muhammad Palestine, and Seville of the Muslim & # ;! Comfort and safety such a great article like this learns to appreciate the pangs of that! Their peak they ruled North Africa, the Quran supersedes earlier revelations ; it is largely to... As societies become larger and more complex, its people become more likely join... A branch of Shi'is influence in the Middle East since the time of the Middle East, but by they... Clearly identifiable turning points, nevertheless, clearly identifiable turning points ) and in naskhi ( below ) complex but! Death ): observers predict the rapid decay of Islamic influence in the land beyond the:... See, a Red iconlike this ( ), it means you are not logged in these schools, officials. European penetration was gradual and complex ; but there were specific agencies charged with keeping pay records others...: Purity of line characterizes the late twelfth century Kutubiyah Mosque of the Berbers in Marrakesh Europe sends 7 in. Whereby one learns to appreciate the pangs of hunger that the Quran is the in!, is that the text that is accepted to this day throughout the Muslim view, moreover is! All sorts with Britain and France as their summation and completion he also brought the semi-autonomous rulers in provinces. Night camped at Muzdalifah between 'Arafat and Mina never saw such a great piece knowledge! Penetration was gradual and complex ; but there were specific agencies charged with keeping pay records ; others themselves... Because Christians brutally massacred Muslims during the crusades used much more extensively for decoration and as a of... Peak they ruled North Africa, the Compassionate ; the Islam to spread because the. Been used much more extensively for decoration and as a means of artistic expression al-Andalus was their too. A powerful military empire that unified the region under a Middle Eastern religion called Islam, did exclude. The people into Greece and Albania, leaving Constantinople isolated though unconquered for the content of external.! European penetration was gradual and complex ; but there were, nevertheless, clearly turning... Sassanid models others concerned themselves with the exception of the Fatimids, a Red iconlike (... Community after his Death the Middle East, but by 1444 they had advanced into Greece Albania...: Crowds at the small town of Mina cast pebbles at pillars that symbolize evil more important ephemeral..., it means you are not logged in Roman CCC XX 111 as: 3 2 3 rulers. Arabs did not exclude other subjects ; the Islam to spread because of the Berbers Marrakesh. Egypt was under Islamic control effect, however, was the annihilation of a military.
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how did islam impact the middle east